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This is a presentation of

Computing Before Computers

Edited by William Aspray
with contributions by

W. Aspray
A. G. Bromley
M. Campbell-Kelly
P.E. Ceruzzi
M. R. Williams

copyrighted 1990 Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa
ISBN 0-8138-0047-1
1. Calculators-History. 2. Computers-History. I. Aspray, William.
QA76. C5834 1990 89-26745
681'. 14 - dc20


Statement of permission to web publish

Scanned, and processed into Adobe .PDF format by Ed Thelen September 2000 from a first edition copy lent by Michael R. Williams - one of the contributors.

To make the contents of this 266 page book more accessable for Internet viewers:


Table of Contents

Introduction .................................... vii
William Aspray Chapter One: Early Calculation .................. 3
Michael R. Williams Chapter Two: Difference and Analytical Engines .. 59
Allan G. Bromley Chapter Three: Logic Machines ................... 99
William Aspray Chapter Four: Punched-Card Machinery ............ 122
Martin Campbell-Kelly Chapter Five: Analog Computing Devices .......... 156
Allan G. Bromley Chapter Six: Relay Calculators .................. 200
Paul E. Ceruzzi Chapter Seven: Electronic Calculators ........... 223
Paul E. Ceruzzi Epilog .......................................... 251
William Aspray Index ........................................... 257


Contributing authors

William Aspray, author of the Introduction, Chapter 3, and the Epilogue, is Director, IEEE Center for the History of Electrical Engineering, 345 E. 47 St., New York, NY 10017.

Allan G. Bromley, author of Chapters 2 and 5, is Senior Lecturer, Basser Department of Computer Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, N.S.W., AUSTRALIA.

Martin Campbell-Kelly, author of Chapter 4, is Lecturer, Computer Science Department, University of Warwick, Coventry, ENGLAND CV4 7AL.

Paul E. Ceruzzi, author of Chapters 6 and 7, is Curator, Space History, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560.

Michael R. Williams, author of Chapter 1, is Professor, Computer Science Department, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, CANADA T2N 1N4. [In 2002, head curator of Computer History Museum]


Index

A AARA computer, 220 Abacus, 7 contest of speed, 7 counters, 12 demise, 7 English, 12 European, 8 Gerbert's, 35 Greek, 8-9 Inca, 8 origins, 7, 10 Roman, 10 Russian, 13 soroban, 7, 15 spread of, 14-15 swanpan, 7, 14 table, 10-11 ABC, 226-230 components, 228 control, 228 failure, 230 genesis of, 227 Mauchly's visit to, 238 operation, 229 use, 228 Abel computer, 220 Accounting and Tabulating Machine Corporation, 137 Accounting machines, 122-155 Accumulator, 215. See also ENIAC Addition, analog, 160, 162 Additive number system, 5 Aiken, Howard, viii, 96, 203, 213-219,224 first proposals, 214 IBM, 215 influence of, 219 Amsler, Jacob, 168 Amsler planimeter. See Planimeters Analog calculation, 156 accuracy of, 157 addition, 160,162 Analog computers electrical, 191-194 Analog computing devices, 156-204. See also Differential analyzer accuracy, 157, 160, 162, 195-196 approximating complex functions, 166 electrical, 177-178 harmonic analyzer, 158, 172-176, 180 harmonic synthesizer, 172, 177 integrators, 167-174, 179-185, 187 isograph, 177 multipliers, 160 network analyzer, 178 noise in, 162, 195 resolver, 158-159, 172, 194 tide predictors, 162, 172-176 Analogue, word origin, 247 Analog versus digital techniques, 196 Analytical engine, 59-60,67,75-91, 200, 203. See also Babbage, Charles; Ludgate, Percy; Torres y Quevedo, Leonardo arithmetic operations, 82-83 barrel control, 85 construction, 90 control mechanism, 85-86 design, 81, 90 design variations, 77 importance of, 95-96 influence of, 96-97 limitations of, 89 Lovelace, Ada, 88-89 microprogram control, 89 mill, 76-77, 79-80, 91 number register, 79 numbers in, 77 operation, 76, 80, 82-83, 85-86 origin, 75 plan view, 78 printing mechanism, 79 programming, 87-89 published accounts, 88 punched cards, 79, 86, 88 relative addressing, 86 sophistication, 79 speed, 82--83 store, 76-77, 79 Analytical Society. See Babbage, Charles Antikythera device, 162-164 Approximation of functions, 64 ARC computer, 220 Arithmometer. See Thomas, Charles Xavier Artillery firing tables, 237. See also ENIAC; Gunnery computers ASCC, 215, 221, 244 components, 216 constant switches, 216 control system, 216-217, 221 operation, 215, 217 reliability, 219-220 uses, 218 Astrolabe, 165 Atanasoff, John V., 226-230, 247 and John Mauchly, 238-239 Atanasoff-Berry computer. See ABC Automata, 100-101 Automata theory, 119 Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator. See ASCC B Babbage, Benjamin, 60 Babbage, Charles, viii, 3, 60-62, 66, 75-91, 200. See also Analytical engine; Carry mechanisms, anticipating; Difference engine awards, 65 calculating machines, importance of, 95 Clement, relations with, 67 control mechanisms, 85-86, 211 death, 62 feedback functions, 75 logarithms, 27 publications, 61, 75 Scheutz difference engine, 90 second difference engine, 90 Babbage, Henry P., 67, 91 Baldwin, Frank S., 51 Ballistic Research Laboratory, 237 Ballistics, 166. See also ENIAC; Gunnery computers BARK computer, 220 Bauersfeld, Walter, 165 Bell Telephone Laboratories, ix, 177, 192,207-212. See also Complex Number Calculator; Relay Interpolator calculating machines, 210 Model II, 210 Model III and IV, 211 Model V, 211 Model VI, 213 need for calculators, 208 Berry, Clifford, 228, 230. See also ABC; Atanasoff, John V Bi-quinary numbers, 212 Billings, J.S., 124 BINAC computer, 245 Binary coded decimal, 209 Binary numbers, 204, 227, 244 Bletchley Park. See Colossus machine Bomb sight computers. See Gunnery computers Boole, George, 105-106 Boolean algebra, 105-106, 117 Boolean functions. See Colossus machine Booth, Andrew Donald; 220 Bradley, Francis, 112 Branching of control, 211 Briggs, Henry, 25-26, 29. See also Logarithms British Tabulating Machine Company. See BTM Brown, T.H., 214 Brunsviga calculating machine, 52-53 Bryce, James W.,136, 136,215 BTM, 137,151 Bug (Hopper moth), 221 Bull. See Machines Bull Burack, Benjamin, 114 Bureau of the Census. See Census; Census Bureau; Hollerith, Herman Burkhardt, William, 115, 117 Burroughs, William S., 59 Burroughs Corporation, 254 Bush, Vannevar, 177, 179-180, 183, 185. See also Differential analyzer C C-T R,136 equipment, 141-142 growth of, 136 Card Programmed Calculator. See CPC Card sorter. See Sorting Carroll, R.M., 136 Carry mechanisms, 225 anticipating, 76, 80 difference engine, 71 Leibniz's, 46-48 Pascal's, 41-43 Scheutz's, 93 Schickard's, 38-39 Census. See also Hollerith, Herman data card, 125 equipment, 131 Hollerith's results, 130 mechanization of, 123 operations in, 125, 128 punched card, 126-127 speed of machines, 129 tabulating machine, 128-129 Census Bureau, 255 Chess playing machines, 95, 102 Chinese abacus, 7, 14 Choreb, 14 Clement, Joseph, 66-67, 96 Clocks, 163-171 Jens Olsen (Copenhagen), 165 Strasbourg cathedral, 165 Clockwork, 100-101 Code breaking, 232-236, 255 Colmar, Thomas de. See Thomas, Charles Xavier Colossus machine, ix, 232-236 influence of, 235-236 later models, 235 operation, 232-234 Columbia University Statistical Bureau, 147, 153 Commercial versus scientific problems, 213 Complement numbers, 71 Complexity theory, 119 Complex Number Calculator components, 209 operation, 209 origins, 208--209 remote access, 210 speed, 209 Comptometer, 54-55 speed, 54 Computer characteristics, 251-252 components, 251 development of, 252-253 first modern, 236 input/output equipment, 254 manufacturers, 254 market for, 253 Computer design, 117 Computer patent, 238-239 Computer Research Corporation, 245,254 Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company. See C-TR Comrie, L.J., 95-96,147, 224 Control systems, 211, 218, 230, 246. See also Paper tape control systems Analytical engine, 85-86 ASCC, 216-217,221 ENIAC, 241 Coradi planimeter. See Planimeters Coulba, 14 Counting, 4 Counting board, 10-11 CPC, 149, 246, 253, 255 D Daniell, John Frederic, 109 Davy, Sir Humphrey, 65-66 DeForest, Lee, 223 Dehomag, 137 Delamain, Richard, 29 De Morgan, Augustus, 31, 105, 110 Descartes, Rene, 103 Difference engine, 59-60, 62-74. See also Babbage, Charles; Comrie, L.J.; Grant, George; Scheutz difference engine; Wiberg, Martin addition mechanism, 71 Babbage's first (1822), 64 Babbage's second, 90 carry mechanism, 70 construction of, 65, 67 design, 68-72,74 government support, 66 importance of, 95-96 Lardner's description, 92 limitations, 75 logarithm tabulation, 73-74 number register, 70 operation, 70-72 origins, 62 printing results, 65, 73-74 size, 70 speed of, 64 spin-offs, 67 Differences, method of. See Difference engine Differential analyzer, ix, 179-185, 189-190, 193, 237, 253. See also Analog computing devices accuracy, 180, 183-185 components, 181, 183, 185 invention of, 174, 176-177 MADDIDA, 245,248 Meccano, 184 RDA2, 185 torque amplifiers, 177 use of, 182-185 Differential equations, 180. See also Differential analyzer Differential gears, 160, 162, 164 Differential machine. See Smee, Alfred Digital, 247 Digital calculation, 156 Digital computer, inventor, 239 Digital versus analog techniques, 196 Disk integrator. See Integrators Dondi, Giovanni de, 165 Duplation, 6 Durfee, B.M., 136,149 DVL. See Schreyer, Helmut; Zuse, Konrad, Z3 E EAM. See Tabulating machines Eccles-Jordan flip-flop, 225, 240 Eckert, J. Presper, 236-242 Eckert, Wallace J., 147, 149, 153, 214, 224,244 Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation, 239, 245 Edison, Thomas, 223 EDVAC computer, 243, 254 Ehrenfest, Paul, 117 Electric accounting machine. See tabulating machines Electro-biological machine, 109 ElectroData, 245, 254 Electromagnetic technology. See Relay Electronic calculators, 223-249 Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. See ENIAC Electronic technology, 218, 223-249, 252. See also Schreyer, Helmut; Zuse, Konrad; Z2 reliability of, 220, 242-243, 246 versus relays, 224 Engineering Research Associates, 220,255 ENIAC, ix, 226,236-242 circuit, 240 components, 240-241 control system, 241-243 influence of, 236, 243 modification of, 242-243 origins, 236-237, 239 reliability, 242 speed, 241 use, 242 vacuum tubes, 240 Enigma, 236. See also Colossus machine ERA, 220,255 Euler, Leonhard, 112 European abacus, 8 F Feedback, 180, 182 Felt, Dory E., 54, 59 Fibonacci, 10 Fleming, J.A., 223 Flint, Charles, 136 Flip-flop, 225, 240 Flowers, Thomas H., 233, 235 Ford, E.A.,136, 136,140 Ford, Hannibal, 187 FORTRAN, 255 Foster, William, 29-30 Fourier analysis, 172, 179 Frege, Gottlob, 106 Fuller's slide rule, 33, 196 G Galvani, Luigi, 109 Gang punch, 125 Geheimschreiber. See Colossus machine Gelosia multiplication, 17-18 Genaille, Henri, 20 Genaille-Lucas rulers, 20-23 Gerbert, 35 Godel, Kurt, 117 Gonnella, Tito, 167 Grant, George, 94 Gunnery computers, 162, 166, 186-190, 192. See also Analog computing devices; Ballistics; Bell Telephone Laboratories, Models II,III,IV M-9 antiaircraft, 192 use of, 187 Gunter, Edmund, 27-29 Gunter's line of numbers, 28-29 H Halting problem, 119 Hamilton, Frank, 244 Hanzawa, Masao, 117 Harley, Reverend Robert, 108 Harmonic analyzer, 158, 172-176, 180 Harmonic synthesizer, 172, 177 Hartree, Douglas R., 184 Harvard calculating machines, ix, 213-219. See also ASCC origins, 214 Harvard Mark II, III, IV, 218, 221 Hatchet planimeter. See Planimeters Heath Robinson. See Colossus machine Hermann, Herr, 167 Heron of Alexandria, 100-101 Herschel, John, 60, 62 Hindu-Arabic numerals, 10 Holbach, Baron d', 104 Hollerith, Herman, 122-134, 136. See also Census; Punched-card machinery competition with Powers, 137 Hollerith Electric Tabulating System. See Punched-card machinery; Tabulating machines Hopper, Grace, 217,221 I IBM. See also ASCC; Aiken, Howard; C-T R; Hollerith, Herman; Tabulating Machine Company; Watson, Thomas J. competition with Remington Rand, 142, 151 founding, 137 growth of, 138 punched-card equipment, 142 war-time growth, 149 IBM 704 computer, 115 IBM 1401 computer, 151 IBM 400 series machines, 143 IBM 600 series machines, 149-150 IBM Card Programmed Calculator, 149,246, 253, 255 IBM Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator, 149 IBM SSEC, 149,244 Inca abacus, 8 Institute for Advanced Study computer, 255 Instruments, analog, 156-204 Integraph, 179 Integrating tabulator. See Tabulating machines Integrators, 167, 174, 179-185, 187 International Business Machines. See IBM Iowa State College, 153. See also ABC; Atanasoff, John V Isograph, 177 J Jacquard, Joseph Marie, loom, 60, 87, 124 Jacquard cards, See Analytical engine, punched cards Japanese abacus, 7, 15 Jaquet-Droz writer, 102 Jetons,12 Jevons, William Stanely, 108, 110-113 Jevons' logic piano, 110 K Kalin, Theodore, 115, 117 Kastner, A. G., 45 Kelvin, Lord, 158, 162, 172-176, 180 Kepler, Johann, 25. See also Schickard, Wilhelm Key-driven adding machine. See Comptometer Keypunch, 133, 142 Kircher, Athanasius, 19, 29,105 L Lake, C.D., 136, 142, 149 Lambert, J.H., 112 La Mettrie, Julien de, 103 Lardner, Dionysius, 89, 92 Lasker, W.W., 140 Laws of thought. See Boolean algebra Lawson, Judge Earl, 239 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 42,44, 105,112 carry mechanism, 46-48 mechanical calculator, 45-47, 49 Royal Society relations, 48 stepped drum mechanism, 45, 49, 51 Leonardo of Pisa, 10 Linear equation. See ABC; Wilbur linear equation solver Logarithms, 3, 23-25,28. See also Napier, John base, 26 spread of, 26-27 tables, 26-28 use of, 27 Logic diagrams, 112 Logic machines, 99-122 electrical, 114-115 electromechanical, 114,116 programmed, 115 usefulness, 115 Logic piano, 110-113 Logic, mechanization of, 105 London University, 220 Lovelace, Ada, 88,211 programs for Analytical Engine, 89 Lucas, Edouard, 20 Ludgate, Percy, 95 Lull, Raymond, 104-105 M Macaroni box comptometer, 55 Machines Bull, 137 MADDIDA, 245,248 Maillardet, Henry, 102 Mallock machine, 178 MANIAC, 255 Mannheim, Amedee, 31-32 Marquand, Allen, 113-114 Matsuzake, Kiyoshi, 7 Mauchly, John W., 210,236-242 and John V Atanasoff, 238-239 Mayo, Herbert, 109 Mechanical calculating machines. See Brunsviga calculating machine; comptometer; Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm; Millionaire calculating machine; Pascal, Blaise; Schickard, Wilhelm; Thomas, Charles Xavier Mechanical calculator systems. See Zuse, Konrad, Zl Mediation, 6 Memory systems electronic, 227, 254 mechanical, 205-206 regenerative, 228, 254 Menabrea, L.R, 88 Merriam, W.R., 132 Mersenne, Fr. Martin, 29 Method of differences, 62, 148 Microprogramming, 89 Millionaire calculating machine, 56 MIT, 179, 185, 191, 254 Moore School of Electrical Engineering, 236-242 Multiplication, analog, 160 N Nakasima, Akira, 117 Napier, John, 3, 16 logarithms, 23, 25-26 Napier's bones, 3, 17-19, 36-38, 57 publications, 25 Napier's bones. See Genaille-Lucas rulers; Napier, John National Bureau of Standards, 254 National Cash Register, 254 Naval gunnery computers. See Gunnery computers Network analyzer, 178 Neumann, John von, 210, 220 Newman, M.H.A, 233 Nicholas of Cusa, 105 NORC, 255 North, S.N.D., 133 Northrop Aircraft, 245 Number system, 4 additive, 5-6 bi-quinary, 212 Egyptian, 5 floating point, 205, 211 positional, 6 Roman numerals, 5-6 O Odhner, Willgodt T., 52, 59 Olsen, Jens,165 Operational amplifier, 192 Orreries, 163-171 Orrery, Earl of, 165 Oughtred, William, 28-30. See also Slide rule circles of proportion, 30 P Pantograph punch, 126-127 Paper tape control systems, 203, 206, 211, 216. See also ASCC Paper tape reader, Colossus, 233 Pascal, Blaise, 34, 39-40 carry mechanism, 41-132 mechanical calculator, 39-43 Peacock, George, 60 Peano, Guiseppe, 106 Petit, Pierre, 20 Phillips, William, 225 Pierce, Charles Saunders, 106, 113 Pin-wheel gear. See Variable-toothed gear Pipeline, 72, 83 Planetariums, 163-171 Planimeters, 167 Amsler,169-170 Coradi, 171, 177 first examples, 167 hatchet, 170 moment, 171 Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator, 149 Polar planimeter. See Planimeters Pope Sylvester 11, 35 Porter, Robert P , 124 Positional number systems, 6 Powers, James Legrand, 136 competition with Hollerith, 137 Powers Accounting Machine Company, 135-136, 140. See also Remington Rand Corporation equipment, 141-142, 200 Powers Keypunch, 134 Powers Caliparea, 160 Prefix arithmetic notation, 209 Price, Derek de Sola, 164 Program controlled calculator. See Relay calculators; Paper tape control systems Program storage, 213. See also Paper tape control systems internal, 212 paper tape, 211 Prosthaphaeresis, method of, 23 Punched cards ABC computer, 230 Analytical engine uses, 76 numeric, 138 types, 139-140, 142, 151 U.S. census, 125-127 Punched-card machinery, viii, 122-155, 213-215, 254. See also BTM; C-T R; IBM; Powers Accounting Machine Company advantages, 129-130 commercial development, 135-146 commercial use, 145 competing firms, 137 early trials and patents, 124 electronics in, 149-150 equipment, 125-127, 129, 133-134,141, 143, 200 improvements to, 132, 134, 140, 142 industry size, 137 mechanical principles, 140 office equipment, 141 publicity of, 130-131 reliability, 132 replacement by computers, 150 sales analysis with, 146 scientific applications on, 147-148 speed,144 spread of, 132 statistics, 144. See also Census ultimate development, 149-155 uses of, 132, 144-146, 148, 153 Q Quarter-squares formula, 198 R Rabdologia. See Napier, John Radar, 226 RDA2, 185, 253. See also Differential analyzer Reckoning table, 10-11 Recorde, Robert, 12-13 Recursive function theory, 117, 119 Relational Machine. See Smee, Alfred Relay, 201-202 Relay calculators, 200-222. See also AARA computer; BARK computer reliability, 219 Relay Interpolator, 210-211 Relay versus mechanical components, 202-203 Reliability of ASCC, 219-220 of electronics, 220, 234, 242-243, 246 of punched-card equipment, 132 of relay equipment, 219 Remington Rand Corporation, 137, 239 competition with IBM, 142, 151 Remote terminals, 209-210 Resolver, 158-159,172,194 Ring counters, 225 Rockwood, Charles, 113 Roman numerals, 5-6 Russell, Bertrand, 106, 115 S Salamis abacus, 8-9 Sang, Edward, 167 Scheutz, Edvard, 92 Scheutz, Georg, 92 Scheutz difference engine, 90, 92-94 calculated tables, 93 construction, 93 operation, 93 second copy, 93 usefulness, 93-94 Schickard, Wilhelm, 34-35 contact with Kepler, 36 mechanical calculator, 36-37, 39 Schott, Gaspard, 19 Schreyer, Helmut, 205, 230-232. See also Zuse, Konrad Scientific Computing Services, 147 Scientific versus commercial problems, 213. See also Punched-card machinery Scott, Michael, 16 SEAC, 254 Seaton device, 123 Sector, 28, 31 Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator, 149,244 Servomechanisms, 188 Sestakov, V.I.S., 117 Shannon, Claude, 116-117 Shapley, Harlow, 214 Slide rule, 3, 27-28, 30-31, 66 accuracy, 196 American use, 32 circles of proportion, 30 circular, 29 demise, 33 Fuller's, 33, 196 Mannheim, 31-32 origins, 29-30 scales, 32 Soho, 31 Thatchers, 196 Smee, Alfred, 108-110 Soroban, 7,15 Sorting, 152 Hollerith sorter, 133 machines, 140-143 needle, 133 Sorting box. See Tabulating machines Sperry Gyroscope Co., 189 Sperry Rand, 150. See also Remington Rand Corporation SSEC, 149,244 Stanhope, Charles, third Earl of, 106 Stanhope Demonstrator, 106, 108 Stchoty, 14 Steiger, Otto, 56 Stepped drum gear, See Leibniz, Gottfried, Wilhelm Stibitz, George, viii, 203, 207-212, 247. See also Complex Number Calculator; Relay Interpolator excess-3 code, 209 model K, 208 Stored program concept, 235, 243-244,246,252 Strowger, Almon, 202 Sub-tabulation method, 64 Svoboda, Antonin, 166,191 Swanpan, 7, 14 Swiss Federal Technical Institute. See Zuse, Konrad, Z4 Sylvester II, Pope, 35 Symbolic logic. See Logic machines T Tables, 27, 65-66, 73-74, 93-94, 96, 148, 218, 237, 242, 244. See also Logarithms ballistic, 190 Tabulating Machine Company, 132. See also C-T R; Census; Hollerith, Herman; IBM early operations, 135 growth of, 136 Tabulating machines, 122-155, 200. See also Hollerith, Herman; IBM alphabetic, 142 improvements in, 132 operation, 129 Tarrant, Robert, 54 Telegraph relay, 202 Telephone switching, 202 Teleregister, 245 Thomas, Charles Xavier, 50, 59, 66 Thompson, J.J., 223 Thomson, James, 174 Thomson, William. See Kelvin, Lord Tide predictors, 162, 172-176 Torque amplifier, 177, 180 Tomes y Quevedo, Leonardo, 95 Turing, Alan M., 89, 117 -119, 233 halting problem, 119 Turing machines, 118-119 Turing Machine, See Turing, Alan M. U United States census. See Census Univac 1004 calculator, 150 Universal Turing Machine. See Turing, Alan M. University of London, 220 V Vacuum tubes. See also Electronic technology ENIAC, 240 reliability, 234 Van Kempelen chess playing Variable-toothed gear, 51-52 Venn, John, 112 Venn diagrams, 112 Vickers predictor, 188 Vlacq, Adrian, 27 W Wang, Hao, 115 Watson, Thomas J.,136, 214-215, 244 Watt, James, 31 Wetli integrator. See Integrators Whirlwind computer, 254 Whitehead, Alfred North, 106,115 Wiberg, Martin, 94 Wiener, Norbert, 210,254 Wilbur linear equation solver, 177, 179 Wood, Tom, 7 Written number systems, 4 Wynn-Williams, C.E., 225,233 Z Zl Z1 l. See Zuse, Konrad Zuse, Konrad, ix, 203-206, 215, 220, 230-231 influence of, 206 mechanical memory, 206 Z1, 204-205 Z3,205-206 Z4,206-207,221 Z11, 220

Statement of permission to web publish
The copyright of
       "COMPUTING BEFORE COMPUTERS"
has been returned to the authors 
by the publisher
        IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY PRESS / AMES


Permission has been granted by 
the book's living authors/contributors of
  "COMPUTING BEFORE COMPUTERS"
	W, Aspray
	M. Campbell-Kelly
	P.E. Ceruzzi
	M. R. Williams
as reported by
	M. R. Williams
to
	Ed Thelen
to place the book 
       "COMPUTING BEFORE COMPUTERS"
in 
	Adobe PDF format 
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